The Rise of Aluminum: From Precious Metal to Everyday Use
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Aluminum's remarkable journey from obscurity to ubiquity is a testament to human ingenuity. Once a symbol of wealth, it is now an integral part of our lives, often unnoticed but everywhere.
"It is almost impossible to imagine our world without aluminum. Almost everywhere you look you see items made of this silver-white metal — from the pots in the kitchen to the airplanes flying overhead. Although aluminum is the most abundant metal on earth, no one had ever seen it until 1825." — The Golden Book Of Chemistry Experiments, Robert Brent, pg 65
The evolution of our surroundings over the last two centuries is astounding, particularly in how common metals have become in our daily lives. We often overlook the simple aluminum can, which finds its way into recycling bins without a second thought. Yet, the same metal is present in the planes delivering packages and the cars we drive. It is inexpensive, lightweight, and soft, blending seamlessly into our environment.
In the early 1800s, however, aluminum held a value comparable to gold. Napoleon III of France famously showcased his extravagant aluminum dinnerware. Meanwhile, the United States demonstrated its newfound capabilities by placing a six-pound aluminum cap atop the Washington Monument, marking the largest use of the metal at that time.
George J. Binczewski, in the Journal of the Minerals, Metals & Materials Society (JOM), details the significant effort and expense involved in creating this cap. In 1884, aluminum cost $16 per pound. To put this into perspective, a worker on the monument earned $1 for a ten-hour day, roughly the same cost as an ounce of aluminum. Ultimately, the cap cost $220, equating to 2,200 hours of labor.
Binczewski also notes that the polishing techniques we have today were not available back then. The perfect pyramid cap, adorned with engravings, needed to be cast and recast until flawless, requiring work at a Philadelphia smelting facility. Binczewski discovered a request for the cap's manufacture from Colonel Thomas Lincoln Case in the National Archives, revealing that the initial idea was not to use aluminum, but rather a suggestion from smelter William Frishmuth.
Rare But Everywhere
"It was decided: First, that the projectile should be a shell made of aluminum with a diameter of 108 inches and a thickness of twelve inches to its walls; and should weigh 19,250 pounds. Second, that the gun should be a Columbiad cast in iron, 900 feet long, and run perpendicularly into the earth. Third, that the charge should contain 400,000 pounds of gun-cotton, which, giving out six billions of litres of gas in rear of the projectile, would easily carry it toward the orb of night." — Jules Verne, From the Earth to the Moon, 1865
In Sarah Laskow’s article in the Atlantic, she discusses the challenges associated with aluminum. While it is one of the most abundant materials on Earth, it has a tendency to bond closely with other elements, making it less accessible.
Rubies and sapphires, for example, are primarily composed of aluminum oxides. This presents a dilemma akin to the challenges faced by Fritz Haber in synthesizing nitrates. Despite nitrogen's abundance in our atmosphere, isolating it was impossible until the early 1900s, similar to the struggles chemists faced with aluminum in the 1800s.
Isolating aluminum was once a feat worthy of science fiction, and even Jules Verne envisioned a projectile made from the metal. Hans Christian Ørsted is often credited with its discovery in 1825, although there is some debate about the true nature of his findings.
The first significant breakthrough in isolating aluminum occurred in 1886 when two chemists, Charles Martin Hall in Ohio and Paul Héroult in France, independently discovered the method before turning 24. They utilized a compound known as cryolite and the new technology of electricity to produce pure aluminum, working under rudimentary conditions—Héroult in a tannery and Hall in a woodshed, where he had to connect multiple batteries for his experiments.
The Metal Becomes Known To The Public
"The Parisian expo put an end to the fairy tale of the silver from clay. Aluminium was shown in public there, and it became clear that most of what was said about it was the product of fantasy and the gullibility of the masses. Instead of the expected heaps, there were only 12 small ingots of aluminium with a total weight of perhaps about a kilogram. Of course, this is not a lot for a discovery that was said to turn the world upside down." — Andrey Drozdov, Aluminium: The Thirteenth Element
Andrey Drozdov explains that the public's awareness of aluminum began at the 1885 Paris Exposition Universelle. Initial reactions, as noted in contemporary newspaper accounts, were unimpressed. Nevertheless, Napoleon III was captivated by the metal.
People began referring to aluminum as "silver from clay" due to its shiny appearance and light weight. Napoleon III made significant investments in the work of scientist Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville, providing him with an unlimited subsidy. Deville's spending reached 36,000 Francs, a sum far exceeding the average annual income of a French family at the time, which was about 2,000 Francs.
The emperor envisioned aluminum as a revolutionary material for his military. He ordered aluminum standards for his troops, but the high costs made this impractical for military use. Nonetheless, its silvery look and high price fascinated the public.
Jewelry began to feature aluminum, including a rattle for the crown prince Louis-Napoleon. Drozdov notes that it became common to see women and dignitaries adorned with aluminum instead of gold at events. Napoleon III proudly displayed his luxurious aluminum dinnerware to visiting dignitaries, reserving "lesser" gold sets for them.
At the 1867 Paris Exposition, where numerous innovations like the telephone and electric lights were showcased, aluminum emerged as a star attraction. Sixteen million attendees witnessed aluminum foil and wire, some polished to shine brighter than silver. Among these spectators were notable figures like Jules Verne, marking a pivotal moment when aluminum was no longer a "fantasy" but a transformative material.
The Metal Lives Up To The Hype
"This lightweight, 100 percent-recyclable metal has since become a foundation of our country’s infrastructure. Used in packaging, automotive, energy, construction, transportation, aerospace, and defense applications, to name a few — aluminum’s impact is so profound that historians may one day look back on our times and declare this 'The Age of Aluminum.'" — The Aluminum Association website
Laskow highlights that Charles Martin Hall continued his work on aluminum in America, seeking ways to industrialize its production. His efforts bore fruit as the price of aluminum plummeted from over $10 per pound in 1880 to just 78 cents by the mid-1890s. Hall would go on to co-found the aluminum giant Alcoa.
One of aluminum's most significant early achievements was its role in powered flight. While Jules Verne envisioned a colossal aluminum projectile aimed at the moon, the reality of powered flight was far more humble. The Wright Brothers, two innovative bicycle makers, turned their attention to flight in their spare time, emphasizing control as the key to successful aviation.
They experimented with gliders to master control before adding power. However, they faced a challenge: they needed a lightweight engine to lift their aircraft. Unable to find a suitable manufacturer, they enlisted their employee, Charlie Taylor, to build an engine using an aluminum block to meet their weight requirements.
In just six weeks, Taylor constructed an engine that not only met but exceeded their expectations, producing 12 horsepower instead of the requested 8. On December 17, 1903, the Wright Flyer I took to the skies for three successful flights in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, achieving a longest flight of nearly 200 feet at an altitude of about 10 feet.
This seemingly small journey marked the beginning of humanity's exploration of the skies, transforming the realm once reserved for birds into a domain for mankind. A simple aluminum block played a critical role in making this dream a reality.
A Metal And The Story Of Humanity Intertwined
The narrative of aluminum mirrors that of humanity itself. Throughout history, many concepts have been dismissed as impossible. Journalists doubted aluminum's significance at the Exposition Universelle, and the Wright Brothers faced skepticism while experimenting with their unconventional flying machine. The notion of extracting nitrates from the air for fertilizers was also met with disbelief.
Yet, human creativity and determination have consistently turned the improbable into reality. Even the imaginative visions of Jules Verne found grounding in technological advancements. While not an aluminum cannonball aimed at the moon, humanity's achievements have proven to be remarkably close to such fantasies.
A curious element once regarded as a novelty evolved into a material akin to silver, and eventually transformed into an everyday metal that many overlook. From jewelry to an essential industrial resource that enabled powered flight, aluminum's journey reflects mankind's ability to convert the extraordinary into the commonplace.
So, the next time you pull out a sheet of aluminum foil for dinner, consider its remarkable history. It's no surprise that Napoleon III chose to dine off aluminum plates.